Ṣafwān ibn al-Muʿaṭṭal al-Sulamī (d. 638 or 679) was a (companion) of the Islamic prophet and an commander in the.
He was one of the first members of the to embrace Islam. He was falsely accused, allegedly by the poet, of having an affair with Muhammad's wife after the two became separated from a -bound caravan.
Medieval reports about this affair are contradictory and the veracity of the incident has been questioned by historian Gautier H. Later, Safwan became a commander and moved from Medina to during the Muslim conquest of that region. Afterward, he took part in the military campaigns against the in (Upper Mesopotamia) and, where he is said to have been slain. However, other reports mention that he died decades later as governor of Armenia. Contents. Life Early life Safwan ibn al-Mu'attal belonged to the Dhakwan clan of the large tribe.
His year of birth is not recorded in the sources. Most of the Sulaym inhabited the region and many members of the Dhakwan lived in the city of where they maintained close ties with the; Safwan was an exception among the Dhakwan and lived in. He converted to just prior to the prophet 's expedition to the al-Muraysi well in 627. Safwan became the subject of a controversy following the expedition when he and Muhammad's wife became separated from the caravan returning to Medina. Rumors circulated that they had an illicit affair, but the allegations turned out to be false.
Safwan blamed the well-known Arab poet for spreading the rumor and is said to have struck him in the head with a sword out of anger. Hassan complained to Muhammad, who compensated him either by offering Hassan an Egyptian bride or a piece of land; in return, a prominent Muslim from Medina, made Hassan relinquish his demand for retribution against Safwan, who was essentially unpunished for his action. Historian Gautier H. Juynboll asserts that the veracity of the stories surrounding the alleged incident between Safwan, Aisha and Hassan ibn Thabit are 'hard to establish; they may be no more than background embellishments of Safwan's role in the affair, assuming then that the tale is historically tenable'. Commander in Jazira and Armenia After the, Safwan settled in the Arab military colony at, in a neighborhood near the old market center of. He became a commander in the Muslim conquests of (Upper Mesopotamia).
According to Muslim historian, in 639, Safwan commanded the left wing of 's 5,000-strong army during the launch of a campaign to conquer al-Jazira; al-Waqidi further states that was part of Safwan's left wing, though other reports contradict this claim. When Iyad reached, he dispatched Safwan and Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri to subdue; after Safwan and Maslama captured several villages and forts in Samosata's vicinity, the townspeople negotiated terms of surrender with the Muslims guaranteeing their personal safety and no harm to their properties in exchange for a head tax and recognition of Muslim rule. When became caliph in 644 he made governor of all, Jazira and the frontier areas of these provinces. Uthman directed Mu'awiyah to continue the conquest of in, a task which he delegated to Safwan and Habib ibn Maslama. The latter two camped around the city for a few days and forced its surrender under terms similar to the capitulation of Samosata; other reports mention that Mu'awiyah himself led this campaign with Safwan and Habib acting as lieutenants.
In either case, Mu'awiyah appointed Safwan governor of Shimshat. Later, Habib made a failed attempt to capture the Armenian fortress of (Hisn Kamkh) from its defenders; Safwan likewise failed in a subsequent assault against the fortress. However, in 678/79, Safwan's forces finally subdued Kamacha; a fellow member of the Sulaymi Dhakwan clan, played an integral role in Kamacha's capitulation. Reports vary widely regarding Safwan's year of death, with one mentioning that he died fighting in Armenia in 638, and other sources, including al-Waqidi, claiming that he died as governor of Armenia in 678/79. References.
Al-Baladhuri (1916). Hitti, Philip Khuri, ed. Colombia University, Longmans, Green & Co. In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Lecomte, G.
The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IX, San–Sze. Leiden and New York: BRILL. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter. Juynboll, G. 'Ṣafwān ibn Muʿaṭṭal'.
List Of Sahaba
In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Lecomte, G. The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VIII, Ned–Sam. Leiden and New York: BRILL.
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter.
Contents. Origin of Islamic China China-Arab Trade relations Trade existed between and 's South Coast, and flourished when traders converted to Islam.
It reached its peak under the. China's long and interactive relationship with the various tribes and empires, through trade, war, subordination or domination paved the way for a large sustained Islamic community within China. Islamic influence came from the various steppe peoples who assimilated in Chinese culture. Served as administrators, generals, and other leaders who were transferred to China from and to administer the empire under the. Muslims in China have managed to practice their faith in China, sometimes against great odds, since the seventh century. Islam is one of the religions that is still officially recognized in China. History According to the historical accounts of Chinese Muslims, was first brought to by Sa'd ibn abi Waqqas, who came to China for the third time at the head of an embassy sent by, the third, in 651, less than twenty years after the death of.
The embassy was led by, the maternal uncle of the prophet himself., the emperor who received the envoy then ordered the construction of the in, the first mosque in the country, in memory of the prophet. Hui legends seem to confuse the 651 visit with the initiation of Islam as early as 616/17 by earlier visits of. While modern historians tend to argue that there is no evidence for Waqqās himself ever coming to China, they do believe that Muslim diplomats and merchants arrived in Tang China within a few decades from the beginning of. The Tang Dynasty's cosmopolitan culture, with its intensive contacts with Central Asia and its significant communities of (originally non-Muslim) Central and Western Asian merchants resident in Chinese cities, which helped the introduction of Islam. Tang dynasty. The, one of China's oldest people are first noted in Chinese written records, under the name Ta shi in the annals of the (618-907) (Ta shi or Da shi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi—the name the used for the Arabs).
Records dating from 713 speak of the arrival of a Da shi ambassador. The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of. Despite conflict between the Tang and the during the in 751, relations between the two states improved soon after. In 756, a contingent probably consisting of Persians and was sent to to help the emperor Su-Tsung in his struggle against the rebellion of. Less than 50 years later, an alliance was concluded between the Tang and the Abbasids against attacks in. A mission from the Caliph (766-809) arrived.
It is recorded that in 758, a large Muslim settlement in erupted in unrest and the people fled. The community had constructed a large mosque , destroyed by fire in 1314, and constructed in 1349-51; only ruins of a tower remain from the first building. During the Tang Dynasty, a steady stream of Arab (Ta'shi) and (Po'si) traders arrived in China through the silk road and the overseas route through the port of. Not all of the immigrants were Muslims, but many of those who stayed formed the basis of the Chinese Muslim population and the ethnic group. The Persian immigrants introduced, their cuisine, their musical instruments, and their knowledge of to China. Main article: Many Muslims went to China to trade, and these Muslims began to have a great economic impact and influence on the country.
During the (960-1279), Muslims in China dominated foreign trade and the import/export industry to the south and west. In 1070, the Song emperor, Shen-tsung (Shenzong) invited 5,300 Muslim men from, to settle in China. The emperor used these men in his campaign against the Liao empire in the northeast.
Later on these men were settled between the Sung capital of and (modern day ). The object was to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao. In 1080, 10,000 Arab men and women migrated to China on horseback and settled in all of the provinces of the north and north-east. The 52 (re-published in 1968-75) was revised under the Song Dynasty in 1056 and 1107 to include material, particularly 200, taken from 's. The Arabs from Bukhara were under the leadership of Prince Amir Sayyid 'So-fei-er' (his Chinese name).
The prince was later given an honorary title. He is reputed of being the 'father' of the Muslim community in China.
Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as Dashi fa ('law of the Arabs') (Tashi or Dashi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi—the name the Persian people used for the Arabs). He renamed it to Huihui Jiao ('the Religion of the Huihui'). Yuan dynasty. Main article: The of China continued to maintain excellent relationship with other nomadic tribes of Mongolia. The Mongol rulers of Yuan Dynasty elevated the status of foreigners of all religions versus the Han, Khitan, and Jurchen, and placed many foreigners such as Muslim Persians and Arabs, Turkic Christians, Jews, Tibetan Buddhist Lamas, and Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs in high-ranking posts instead of native scholars, using many Muslims in the administration of China. The territory of the Yuan was administered in 12 districts during the reign of with a governor and vice-governor each.
According to Iranian historian Rashidu'd-Din Fadlu'llah, of these 12 governors, 8 were; in the remaining districts, Muslims were vice-governors. At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. The state forced massive numbers of Central Asian Muslims to move into China during the Yuan period.
In the fourteenth century, the total population of Muslims was 4,000,000. It was during this time that, a, presented with seven Persian astronomical instruments. Also, The Muslim architect (Amir al-Din) learned from and helped to design and construct the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, otherwise known as Khanbaliq or Khanbaligh. In the mid-14th century, the against the Mongol Yuan led by Chinese Persian Muslims broke out in South. After the rebellion was suppressed the local Han Chinese in turned against and great misery was brought upon Muslim population. Quanzhou itself ceased to be a leading international seaport. Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued.
Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews 'slaves', and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Was also forbidden.
Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat. Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat.
Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese which meant 'barracks' and also mean 'thanks', many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them. Dadu would last until 1368 when Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the and future, made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital. The last Yuan emperor fled north to and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming Dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground. The city was renamed Beiping by the Ming in the same year.
Ming dynasty. Main article: Muslims continued to flourish in China during the. During Ming rule, the capital, was a center of. The Ming dynasty saw the rapid decline in the Muslim population in the sea ports.
This was due to the closing of all seaport trade with the outside world. However it also saw the appointment of Muslim military generals such as who campaigned in and central. These two areas became leading centers of Islamic learning in China.
The emperor was the founder of the. Many of his most trusted commanders were Muslims, including, Feng Sheng and Ding Dexing. The Ming Dynasty also gave rise to the famous Muslim explorer.
Muslims in Ming dynasty were given relative freedom by the Chinese, with no restrictions placed on their religious practices or freedom of worship, and being normal citizens in Beijing. In contrast to the freedom granted to Muslims, followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism suffered from restrictions and censure in Beijing. Integration Immigration slowed down drastically however, and the Muslims in China became increasingly isolated from the rest of the Islamic world, gradually becoming more, adopting the Chinese language and Chinese dress. During this period, Muslims also began to adopt Chinese surnames. Other Muslims, who could not find a Chinese surname similar to their own, adopted the Chinese character most similar to their own - Ma (馬) for Muhammad, Mai for Mustafa, Mu for Masoud, Ha for Hasan, Hu for Hussain and Sa'I for Said and so on.
The, and are Muslims in China who use Chinese surnames. As a result, the Muslims became 'outwardly indistinguishable' from the Chinese. In addition to names, Muslim customs of dress and food also underwent a synthesis with Chinese culture.The Islamic modes of dress and dietary rules were maintained within a Chinese cultural framework.
In time, the immigrant Muslims began to speak local dialects and to read in Chinese. Qing dynasty. Main article: (1644–1911) was ruled by the Manchus. In the Qing Dynasty, Muslims had many mosques in the large cities, with particularly important ones in, and other places (in addition to those in the western Muslim regions). The architecture typically employed traditional Chinese styles, with -language inscriptions being the chief distinguishing feature.
Many Muslims held government positions, including positions of importance, particularly in the army. As travel became easier, there were many exchanges between China and the outside world. Around this time, Chinese Muslims also became the first Muslims in (See ). Spread throughout the Northwestern China in the early decades of the Qing Dynasty (mid-17th century through early 18th century). The most important Sufi orders ( menhuan) included:. The, which was established in China (祁静一), also known as Hilal al-Din (1656–1719), student of the famous, and. He was known among the Hui Sufis as Qi Daozu (Grand Master Qi).
The shrine complex around 'great tomb' ( da ) in remains the center of the Qadiriyya in China. The: a order. The: another menhuan, founded.
Gunners of the Dungan revolt Ming loyalist Muslims When the invaded the in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay. The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt. After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged alleigance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.
When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing. The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle. The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing. Dungan and Panthay Revolts. Main article: The Manchu dynasty fell in 1911, and the Republic of China was established by Sun Yat Sen, who immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and the Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. This led to some improvement in relations between these different peoples.
The end of the Qing dynasty also marked an increase in Sino-foreign interaction. This led to increased contact between Muslim minorities in China and the Islamic states of the Middle East.
A missionary, Claude Pickens, found 834 well-known Hui who had made between 1923 and 1934. By 1939, at least 33 Hui Muslims had studied at Cairo's. In 1912, the Chinese Muslim Federation was formed in the capital.
Similar organization formed in (1912), (1925) and (1934). Academic activities within the Muslim community also flourished. Before the Sino-Japanese War of 1937, there existed more than a hundred known Muslim periodicals. Thirty journals were published between 1911 and 1937. Although remained the center for religious activities, many Muslim cultural activities had shifted to Beijing. In the first decade of the 20th century, it has been estimated that there were 20 million Muslims in (that is, China excluding the regions of Mongolia and Xinjiang).
Of these, almost half resided in, over a third in (as defined at that time) and the rest in. In 1911, the provinces of, and fell to Muslim warlords of the family known as the, including and.
During the the Japanese followed what has been referred to as a 'killing policy' and destroyed many mosques. According to Wan Lei, 'Statistics showed that the Japanese destroyed 220 mosques and killed countless Hui people by April 1941.'
After the mosques in Nanjing were found to be filled with dead bodies.They also followed a policy of economic oppression which involved the destruction of mosques and Hui communities and made many Hui jobless and homeless. Another policy was one of deliberate humiliation. This included soldiers smearing mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui to butcher pigs to feed the soldiers, and forcing girls to supposedly train as geishas and singers but in fact made them serve as sex slaves. Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons. Was subjected to slaughter by the Japanese. On 10 February 1938, Legation Secretary of the German Embassy, Rosen, wrote to his Foreign Ministry about a film made in December by Reverend about the to recommend its purchase.
Here is an excerpt from his letter and a description of some of its shots, kept in the Political Archives of the Foreign Ministry in Berlin. One of the victims killed by the Japanese was a Muslim (Mohammedan) whose name was Ha. During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanking – which, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degree – the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese.
One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today. On December 13, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at #5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanking, and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a named Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. Ha asked them why they killed her husband and they shot her.
Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide with her 1 year old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest, and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina. The baby was killed with a bayonet. Some soldiers then went to the next room, where Mrs.
Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and her two daughters aged 16 and 14. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them.
The soldiers killed her with a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were then stripped, the elder being raped by 2–3 men, and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwards and a cane was rammed in her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horrible treatment that had been meted out to her sister and mother.
The soldiers then bayoneted another sister of between 7–8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4 and 2 respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with a sword.
In 1937, during the the Chinese government was notified by Muslim General of the that he was prepared to bring the fight to the Japanese in a telegram message. Immediately after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Ma Bufang arranged for a cavalry division under the Muslim General to be sent east to battle the Japanese. Ethnic Turkic made up the majority of the first cavalry division which was sent by Ma Bufang. Muslims affiliated with the after the. In the, Muslim Kuomintang forces in Northwest China, in Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang, as well as Yunnan, continued an unsuccessful insurgency against the communists from 1950 to 1958, after the general civil war was over. Early communist era The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. Through many of the early years there were tremendous upheavals which culminated in the Cultural Revolution.
During the Cultural Revolution urban youths were encouraged to move to the countryside to 'tame the wilderness' and many chose, inadvertently diverting Muslim influence. During that time, the government also accused Muslims, Buddhists, Christians and all other religions in China of holding 'superstitious beliefs' and promoting ' trends'. Were often defaced, destroyed or closed and copies of the were destroyed along with Chinese temples, Christian churches, Buddhist monasteries, and cemeteries by the. Chinese Muslims say that the Soviet Union was worse in regards to its treatment of Islam than China during the 'ten black years' (of the Cultural Revolution). Since the advent of Deng Xiaoping in 1979, the Chinese government liberalised its policies toward Islam and Muslims. New legislation gave all minorities the freedom to use their own spoken and written languages; develop their own culture and education; and practice their religion. More Chinese Muslims than ever before are allowed to go on the.
China banned a book titled 'Xing Fengsu' ('Sexual Customs') which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book. The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs, Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned. In 2007, anticipating the coming 'Year of the Pig' in the, depictions of pigs were banned from 'to avoid conflicts with ethnic minorities'. This is believed to refer to China's population of 20 million (to whom pigs are considered '). In response to the 2015 Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper said the attack was 'payback' for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations. Different Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom.
Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang. Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Muslim areas, only specifically excluding Xinjiang from allowing these schools because of separatist sentiment there. Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the Communist party allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam. China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang. Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during Ramadan unlike Uyghurs in the same positions, the amount of Hui going on Hajj is expanding, and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them and Uyghurs find it difficult to get passports to go on Hajj. Hui religious schools are allowed a massive autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even as he admitted to attending an event where Bin Laden spoke.
Uyghur views vary by the oasis they live in. China has historically favored Turpan and Hami. Uyghurs in Turfan and Hami and their leaders like Emin Khoja allied with the Qing against Uyghurs in.
During the Qing dynasty, China enfeoffed the rulers of Turpan and Hami (Kumul) as autonomous princes, while the rest of the Uyghurs in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin) were ruled by Begs. Uyghurs from Turpan and Hami were appointed by China as officials to rule over Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin. Turpan is more economically prosperous and views China more positively than the rebellious Kashgar, which is the most anti-China oasis.
Uyghurs in Turpan are treated leniently and favourably by China with regards to religious policies, while Kashgar is subjected to controls by the government. In Turpan and Hami, religion is viewed more positively by China than religion in Kashgar and Khotan in southern Xinjiang. Both Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turn a blind eye to the law and allow religious Islamic education for Uyghur children. Celebrating at religious functions and going on Hajj to Mecca is encouraged by the Chinese government, for Uyghur members of the Communist party. From 1979-1989, 350 mosques were built in Turpan. Han, Hui, and the Chinese government are viewed much more positively by Uyghurs specifically in Turpan, with the government providing better economic, religious, and political treatment for them.
Tensions between Hui Muslims and Uyghurs arise because Hui troops and officials often dominated the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts. Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations. Some Uyghurs in remember that the Hui army at the massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China. Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries. Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques.
China today. Main article: Under China's current leadership, Islam is undergoing a modest revival and there are now many mosques in China.
There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nationwide Islamic associations have been organised to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims. In most of China, Muslims have considerable religious freedom, however, in areas like, where there has been unrest among Uighur Muslims, activities are restricted. China is fighting an increasingly protracted struggle against members of its Uighur minority, who are a Turkic people with their own language and distinct Islamic culture. Uighar separatists are intent on re-establishing the state of East Turkistan, which existed for a few years in the 1920s.Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, China feared potential separatist goals of Muslim majority in Xinjiang. An April, 1996 agreement between, and, however, assures China of avoiding a military conflict.
Other Muslim states have also asserted that they have no intentions of becoming involved in China's internal affairs. China fears the influence of radical Islamic thinking filtering in from central Asia, and the role of exiles in neighbouring states and in Turkey, with which Xinjiang's majority Uighur population shares linguistic ties. With economic reform after 1978, health care in China became largely private fee-for-service due to the introduction of capitalist reforms which abolished the free socialist health care.
This was widely criticised by Muslims in the North West, who were often unable to obtain medical support in their remote communities. China banned a book titled 'Xing Fengsu' ('Sexual Customs') which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book. The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs, Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned. In 2007, the People's Republic of China's state run television station ordered major advertising agencies not to use pig images, cartoons or slogans 'to avoid conflicts with ethnic minorities', a reference to China's Muslims.
In response to the 2015 Chinese state-run media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the cartoons insulting Muhammad, with the state-run advocated limiting freedom of speech, while another state-run newspaper said the attack was 'payback' for what it characterised as Western colonialism and accusing Charlie Hebdo of trying to incite a clash of civilizations. Different Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom.
Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang. Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Muslim areas, only specifically excluding Xinjiang from allowing these schools because of separatist sentiment there. Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the Communist party allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.
China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang. Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during Ramadan unlike Uyghurs in the same positions, the amount of Hui going on Hajj is expanding, and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them and Uyghurs find it difficult to get passports to go on Hajj. Hui religious schools are allowed a massive autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even as he admitted to attending an event where Bin Laden spoke. Uyghur views vary by the oasis they live in.
China has historically favored Turpan and Hami. Uyghurs in Turfan and Hami and their leaders like Emin Khoja allied with the Qing against Uyghurs in. During the Qing dynasty, China enfeoffed the rulers of Turpan and Hami (Kumul) as autonomous princes, while the rest of the Uyghurs in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin) were ruled by Begs. Uyghurs from Turpan and Hami were appointed by China as officials to rule over Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin. Turpan is more economically prosperous and views China more positively than the rebellious Kashgar, which is the most anti-China oasis. Uyghurs in Turpan are treated leniently and favourably by China with regards to religious policies, while Kashgar is subjected to controls by the government. In Turpan and Hami, religion is viewed more positively by China than religion in Kashgar and Khotan in southern Xinjiang.
Both Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turn a blind eye to the law and allow religious Islamic education for Uyghur children. Celebrating at religious functions and going on Hajj to Mecca is encouraged by the Chinese government, for Uyghur members of the Communist party. From 1979-1989, 350 mosques were built in Turpan. Han, Hui, and the Chinese government are viewed much more positively by Uyghurs specifically in Turpan, with the government providing better economic, religious, and political treatment for them.
Tensions between Hui Muslims and Uyghurs arise because Hui troops and officials often dominated the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts. Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations.
Some Uyghurs in remember that the Hui army at the massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China. Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries. Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques. The Uyghur terrorist organization 's magazine Islamic Turkistan has accused the Chinese 'Muslim Brotherhood' (the ) of being responsible for the moderation of Hui Muslims and the lack of Hui joining terrorist jihadist groups in addition to blaming other things for the lack of Hui Jihadists, such as the fact that for more than 300 years Hui and Uyghurs have been enemies of each other, no separatist Islamist organizations among the Hui, the fact that the Hui view China as their home, and the fact that the 'infidel Chinese' language is the language of the Hui. Drug dealers are accused by Muslims of pushing heroin on Uyghurs.
Heroin has been vended by Hui dealers. There is a typecast image in the public eye of heroin being the province of Hui dealers. Hui have been involved in the Golden Triangle drug area. Tibetan-Muslim sectarian violence In Tibet, the majority of Muslims are Hui people. Hatred between Tibeans and Muslims stems from events during the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang's rule in Qinghai such as and the, but in 1949 the Communists put an end to the violence between Tibetans and Muslims, however, new Tibetan-Muslim violence broke out after China engaged in liberalization. Riots broke out between Muslims and Tibetans over incidents such as bones in soups and prices of balloons, and Tibetans accused Muslims of being cannibals who cooked humans in their soup and of contaminating food with urine. Tibetans attacked Muslim restaurants.
Fires set by Tibetans which burned the apartments and shops of Muslims resulted in Muslim families being killed and wounded in the 2008 mid-March riots. Due to Tibetan violence against Muslims, the traditional Islamic white caps have not been worn by many Muslims. Scarfs were removed and replaced with hairnets by Muslim women in order to hide. Muslims prayed in secret at home when in August 2008 the Tibetans burned the Mosque. Incidents such as these which make Tibetans look bad on the international stage are covered up by the community.
The repression of Tibetan separatism by the Chinese government is supported by Hui Muslims. In addition, Chinese-speaking Hui have problems with Tibetan Hui (the Tibetan speaking minority of Muslims). The main Mosque in Lhasa was burned down by Tibetans and Chinese Hui Muslims were violently assaulted by Tibetan rioters in the. Tibetan exiles and foreign scholars like ignore and do not talk about sectarian violence between Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims.